For the next three blogs we are going to look at how behavioural psychology is used in hypnotherapy.
This time we are going to look at conditioning. What is it and how does it work?
The fact that the outside world has an effect on our behaviours seems so obvious to us as to be unremarkable. Yet once we start to think about it, there is much to be learned.
Conditioning involves identifying a consequence with a thing in the world. Something happens, or I notice something, and then something else happens and I identify the first thing with the second thing.. If the second follows the first on a regular basis I will begin to identify a pattern. This patten can then be used to mould behaviour.
We will look at how this works in a moment, but it is worth noting the ethical problems with the use of conditioning, in therapy. This is especially true when a bad or undesirable consequence, such as punishment, follows the first thing. The use of punishment, especially in certain circumstances, such as prisons, may be seen as too coercive. It may also have limited success, as it leads to the suppression of bad behaviour rather than genuine change. Even in less coercive circumstances — such as schools or hospitals, where there is still often a power imbalance — there may be coercion and manipulation.
The whole process of conditioning also tends to identify a problem in isolation. It is often a better approach to consider the whole person and support them with all their quirks and individual responses.
But use of conditioning does have its place. In order for this technique to be used ethically, it is essential that the purpose of the treatment is clearly communicated and that genuine consent from the client is sought and obtained.
Classical Conditioning
The oldest identified form of conditioning is called classical conditioning.
It was identified by the physiologist Ivan Pavlov in his famous experiment where dogs were found to salivate when they heard a bell which they had been taught to associate with the arrival of food. The key point is that the real stimulus — the food, in this case — does not need to be present once the link has been made between it and a substitute. Eventually, the salivation happens with the bell alone.
This form of conditioning is with us today in many ways and is used extensively in modern commerce. Companies trying to sell things to us use it all the time. A company will work to associate its products with happiness, success, or popularity. Images play a central role here, so, happy music and images of groups of friendly people may be used in an advertisement for food, for example. The ambition is to plant the idea that a particular food will make you happy and popular. Or aspiration may be harnessed. A famous and glamorous person may be used to endorse a product, with the knowledge that association with this person will induce a belief that the purchaser can share in their image and success. This is often used to sell sports clothing or equipment.
Much of this process works at a subconscious level. If asked, many people would vehemently deny that they are influenced in this way. Yet it works — if it didn’t, companies would not spend the millions they do on it.
Versions of it are used in behavioural therapy. For example, aversion therapy, where an undesired behaviour is followed by an unpleasant consequence. A well-known example is giving people with an alcohol problem a drug which produces vomiting when mixed with alcohol.
Operant Conditioning
The other common form of conditioning is called operant conditioning.
This was pioneered by the behavioural scientist B. F. Skinner. It is a more active process focused on adapting behaviour by getting the client or patient to associate certain types of behaviour with certain types of response. Put simply: for a positive response, a desired behaviour is rewarded; for a negative response, an undesired behaviour is punished or faces the threat of punishment or unpleasant consequences.
With this in mind, we can explore where operant conditioning is useful in a therapeutic session. It is a very important part of cognitive behavioural therapy. There are a number of common techniques in use. These include:
- Reinforcing positive behaviour by giving praise
- Using negative reinforcement by removing a punishment or unpleasant experience if behaviour changes in a good way.
- Negative punishment: taking away privileges when behaviour has been undesirable
- Withholding rewards or giving rewards
- Token economies: These are often used in schools. Small rewards (perhaps in the form of tokens which can be exchanged for treats) are given for good behaviours.
Often, this technique is built up over time and used in combination with other psychological techniques. It can be effective in tackling dangerous behaviours or behaviours that are very distressing to the client. It can often work quickly and be successful in the short term. It may also create a space where some of the deeper issues can be addressed, and a longer-term solution can be developed.
An example could be the breaking of a bad habit which is not contributing to a long-term solution to a problem. For example, an anxious client may bite their nails as a result of anxiety. Using a deterrent may stop this habit, which will decrease the client’s distress and make them more receptive to a structured programme to help manage the anxiety.
We will be looking at this in more detail next time when we explore techniques to deal with habits.
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I hope this overview has helped clarify how information is processed during hypnosis and its implications for therapy. Feel free to reach out with any questions or let me know if there are topics you’d like me to explore further.
Coming Next
Habit formation and breaking techniques we will look at how conditioning can help us when dealing with habits in a therapeutic setting.